Religion, geopolitics and propaganda: The intersection of Russian, Chinese and Iranian influence operations in the Western Balkans

Narratives about the “defense of the Orthodox World,” for instance, have frequently been used in discourses linked to Russian foreign policy

In the era of modern conflicts, wars are no longer fought only on the battlefield but also within the information space. Alongside military confrontation, a parallel battle is being waged to control narratives and shape public perception. Propaganda, information manipulation and disinformation have become key instruments of geopolitical competition.

The Western Balkans, due to its complex political history, inherited tensions and the fragile structure of its media landscape, remains one of the regions most vulnerable to such influence operations.

Recent developments in the Middle East, tensions between major powers and the global competition for influence have generated a new wave of narratives that are rapidly spreading into the information space of the Balkans. In many cases, these narratives are not merely reflections of international developments but part of broader political communication strategies by state actors seeking to influence public opinion in the region.

Russia, China and in some cases Iran have over the years built networks of influence across the Balkan media environment. These networks include traditional media outlets, online portals, cultural and religious organizations, as well as powerful communication networks on social media platforms.

The objective is not always to directly persuade the public to accept a specific narrative. Often the goal is to create confusion, relativize facts and weaken trust in democratic institutions and traditional sources of information.

In this context, international conflicts are frequently used as instruments to reshape political debates within the region. A crisis in the Middle East or a clash between major powers can quickly become a polarizing topic in the public discourse of the Balkans. This occurs because global conflicts are interpreted through ideological and historical frameworks that already exist within the region.

In Serbia, for example, a segment of pro-government media and tabloids disseminate narratives that often align with the editorial lines of Russian state media. The West is portrayed as a destabilizing force in the international order, while Russia is presented as a power challenging that order and defending the principle of state sovereignty. These narratives have been particularly amplified since the beginning of the war in Ukraine, when parts of the Serbian media promoted the Russian interpretation of the conflict and relativized Moscow’s responsibility for the aggression.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, particularly in the entity of Republika Srpska, pro-Russian and anti-Western narratives have also found fertile ground. Media outlets and political actors connected to the structures of this entity often reproduce discourses that align with Moscow’s communication strategy. In some cases, these narratives intertwine with nationalist rhetoric that already forms part of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s internal political dynamics.

An important dimension within this ecosystem of narratives is the religious factor. In the Balkans, religion is not only a matter of personal belief but often an integral part of national and political identity. For this reason, narratives that frame a conflict as a religious confrontation can generate strong emotional reactions within public opinion.

Narratives about the “defense of the Orthodox World,” for instance, have frequently been used in discourses linked to Russian foreign policy. In this context, the Kremlin is portrayed as a defender of Orthodox identity and traditional values against a West described as liberal and decadent. Such messages often resonate with segments of public opinion in Serbia and among some Serbian communities across the region.

On the other hand, conflicts in the Middle East are sometimes interpreted through a religious narrative aimed at mobilizing solidarity with Muslim populations involved in those conflicts. This approach is occasionally used by propaganda networks connected to different actors. The intersection of religious and geopolitical narratives creates fertile ground for social polarization.

Social media has dramatically accelerated the spread of these narratives. Platforms such as Facebook, X (former Twitter), YouTube and TikTok have become primary channels for the circulation of information across the region.

In this environment, emotional and sensational content spreads far more rapidly than balanced analysis. One of the most frequently used techniques in these information operations is the manipulation of visual materials. Footage from previous conflicts or from entirely different regions is often presented as evidence from current events. In some cases, artificial intelligence technologies are also used to generate videos or images that appear authentic.

Various online portals across the region often republish such materials without sufficient verification, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of disinformation. The more frequently a piece of information circulates online, the more credible it tends to appear to the public.

In Kosova, for example, disinformation operations are often linked to political tensions and the situation in the northern part of the country. Narratives circulating in certain media outlets and on social networks attempt to portray Kosova as a destabilizing factor in the region or as a project imposed by the West. These narratives frequently mirror discourses promoted by certain media outlets in Serbia as well as propaganda networks associated with Russian interests in the region.

In Montenegro, disinformation has been particularly visible during periods of political crisis and elections. Narratives related to national identity, the Orthodox Church and the country’s geopolitical orientation have often been used to polarize public opinion. In many cases, these narratives spread through coordinated networks on social media platforms.

Another important dimension is the influence of media outlets funded by foreign states.

Media such as RT, Sputnik and other platforms connected to Russia’s international media strategy have maintained a significant presence in the region’s information space for years, particularly in the Serbian language.

China, meanwhile, has invested more heavily in media and cultural diplomacy, promoting narratives related to economic development and a multipolar international order.

Iran, although with more limited influence in the region, occasionally uses religious and ideological narratives to build solidarity with certain communities and promote its interpretation of developments in the Middle East.

Many of these influence operations function indirectly. Messages are often reproduced by local media outlets, analysts or influencers who are not always aware of their original source. The result is an increasingly fragmented public space.

Rational debate is frequently replaced by clashes of competing narratives and emotional reactions. Instead of international conflicts being analyzed critically and in a balanced manner, they are often used to deepen existing divisions within societies.

For the Western Balkans, this represents a serious challenge to democratic stability and the quality of public debate.

In an environment where information is manipulated and propaganda spreads rapidly, citizens face growing difficulties in distinguishing facts from fabricated narratives.

The role of professional journalism therefore becomes even more important. Media outlets that invest in fact-checking and balanced reporting can serve as a counterweight to disinformation.

The Balkans have experienced the consequences of propaganda and information manipulation before. The experiences of the 1990s demonstrate that disinformation and false narratives can have real consequences for people’s lives and for the stability of societies.

For this reason, understanding the mechanisms of modern propaganda and influence operations is essential to protecting the public sphere and preserving a healthy democratic debate in the region. /The Balkan Report/